Checklist of the Collembola: Synanthropic Collembola, Springtails in Association with Man |
Samenvatting
Overzicht van publicaties over Collembola in associatie met de mens.
Keywords: Collembola, human infestations, synanthropic.
The following is a list of records quoted from references that describe Collembola associated with man. The records are grouped in a classification system based on the 'grade of association'. For each class, the records are ordered on authority. For each authority, as long as the original publication could not be verified, referencing authors are ordered chronologically.
In this report, we have adopted the term infestation as defined by Pratt & Smith: parasitism by parasites which are attached to the skin or temporarily invade superficial tissues. In contrast, parasitism of body tissues, intestine, or atria is generally called infection.
The infestations are classified as domestic infestations (Collembola found in houses), incidental human infestations (infestations through pot plants in the bedroom, infestations by malfunctioning pooters, mouth operated aspirators), human infestations not associated with dermatitis and human infestations associated with dermatitis. In addition, one could also consider the delusional infestations (psychotic infestations) and the infestations due to 'sample contamination' (clinical errors, laboratory errors).
Not included are records from gardens, greenhouses, compost, botanical gardens, cultivated fields, etc. These are considered to be horticultural or agricultural infestations, and are therefore not taken into account in this report. Also not included are records from swimming pools.
Ideal conditions for Collembola result from high humidity in conjunction with excessive organic debris. In addition to whatever nutritive material that may be present in the organic matter, mildew spores can form, contributing further sustenance. Collembola infestations can be suspected whenever mildew odors are detectable. Infestations tend to increase during hot, humid weather, and decrease during cold weather when the heating system dries the air and the building structure. Even during the drier periods, however, springtails may be found in great abundance around the insulations of steam and water pipes (Scott et al., 1962; Scott, 1966:20; Ebeling, 1975).
Arnaud, P.H.Jr & Davies, T.W. (1980:155-156) cited from Greenslade, P. (1995:256) California:
"For instance, shower curtains have
been described as "black" with these animals
[Entomobrya unostrigata = Entomobrya kanaba]
(ARNAUD, DAVIES 1980)."
Balazuc et al. (1951) cited from Gisin (1962:20) France:
"d'innombrables spécimens dans un viel établi en bois dans une
carrière souterraine de la région parisienne cités
par BALAZUC ET AL. (Vie et Milieu, 2, 1951:317) sous le
nom de Entomobraya[(sic)] guthriei
( = subpurpurascens)."
Cited from Ellis (1974:233-234):
"Gisin, 1962, discusess three similar cases
[of Entomobryoides purpurascens (PACKARD, 1873)]
in Paris and Genève."
Busvine, J. (1951:421-422) Britain:
"The domestic collembola (i.e. sometimes occuring in houses)
such as Hypogastrura purpurascens[sic] Lubbock, thrive between
temperatures of 3 degrees C. (37 degrees F.) and 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.).
They are resistant to low temperature and cold death occurs at -5 degrees
to -15 degrees C. (23 to 5 degrees F.)."
"An American pest-control operator described an infestation of
Seira nigromaculata in decayed insulation of a refrigeration plant.
This was eradicated by injecting the insulating material at six foot
intervals with a 5% solution of rotenone in methyl formate.
18"
Note that Busvine misspelled 'purpurescens' as 'purpurascens'.
Cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430):
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Entomobryoides purpurascens (Packard 1873), by Busvine 1951"
Note that Scott & al. referenced in error another collembolan
species (probably due to Busvine's incorrect spelling).
Busvine, J.R. (1966:419-20) Britain:
"The domestic collembola (i.e. sometimes occuring in houses)
such as Hypogastrura purpurescens Lubbock, thrive between
temperatures of 3 degrees C. (37 degrees F.) and 15 degrees C. (59 degrees F.).
They are resistant to low temperature and cold death occurs at -5 degrees
to -15 degrees C. (23-25 degrees F.)."
"An American pest-control operator described an infestation of
Seira nigromaculata in decayed insulation of a refrigeration plant.
This was eradicated by injecting the insulating material at 6-foot
intervals with a 5% solution of rotenone in methyl formate.
(40)"
Christiansen, K. (1998 in 2001:in litt.) California & Indiana:
"I have two validated cases of house infestations by species of
Lepidocyrtus,
one from California and one from Indiana. Oddly, two different species are
involved: Lepidocyrtus floridensis and Lepidocyrtus fimicolus.
Neither has previously been reported from buildings.
In both cases the inhabitants claimed the
Collembola were responsible for human infestation but no specimens were
collected from their bodies. The collections were from their houses but were
both in large numbers."
Christiansen, K. & Bellinger, P. (1980:921) North America:
"Willowsia buski (Lubbock), 1870 ...
This species is most common in man-made structures ..."
Christiansen, K.A., Janssens, F. & Jones, D. (1999) Florida:
"This publication is an attempt to report as detailed as possible
the where abouts of a domestic infestation in a house in Florida
by a neotropical entomobryid springtail
Seira brasiliana (Arlé, 1939) Marcus, 1949
that is apparently extending
its geographical range on the northern hemisphere
as well as its range of habitats."
"The springtail specimens have been collected by the junior author in and
around his house in the St Peterburg area in Florida, US on 1999.06.05-06.
The springtails have been collected some from inside the bathroom,
some from the outside walls around the pool, and the majority of them
from around the outside wall of the bedroom window."
Colwell, C. in Christiansen (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Indiana:
"... I inspected the home [in Indiana] earlier this week and
found no live springtails, nor any
in the 40-some sticky monitor traps our Technician had previously placed.
However, the homeowner did have two containers of hundreds of dead
springtails, presumably of the variety you identified [Lepidocyrtus
fimicolus].
My conclusion from questioning the homeowner and observing conditions present
in and around the home leads me to believe that the 'infestation' originated
from outside, specifically around the foundation. The infestation seems to be
sporadic and correlated with excessive moisture events outside; heavy rain
earlier, and thawing snow a couple weeks ago.
I believe the springtails were washed from soil and debris around the
foundation, somehow managed to find their way through the foundation and into
the basement where large numbers of them, mostly dead, accumulated for example
on a table top next to the foundation wall. Sightings elsewhere in the house
I attribute to transport of household items from the basement.
We will be suggesting moisture reduction strategies to the homeowner, and
providing exterior perimeter sprays of pyrethroids around the foundation."
Denis (1934) cited from Gisin (1962:20-21) France:
"un grand nombre d'exemplaires dans une maison près de Paris
signalés par DENIS (1934) sous le nom de
Entomobrya subpurpurascens Denis"
"CHRISTIANSEN (1958) a vu les spécimens de
DENIS et affirme leur identité avec
E. purpurascens, forme décrite de l'Amerique du Nord, ce qui
fait dire cet auteur qu'en Europe l'espèce est introduite par
l'homme."
Cited from Ellis (1974:233-234):
"Gisin, 1962, discusess three similar cases
[of Entomobryoides purpurascens (PACKARD, 1873)]
in Paris and Genève."
Ellis (1974:233-234,235) the Netherlands:
"Of the species that occur in or associated with houses, I mention a mass
occurence of Entomobryoides purpurascens (PACKARD, 1873)
in a house at Eindhoven. (Gisin, 1962, discusses three similar cases in Paris
and Genève). Another occasional plaque in houses is Bourletiella
hortensis. Twice Willowsia buski (LUBBOCK, 1869)
is found as a synanthropic.
Seira domestica (NICOLET, 1841) is in the Netherlands
restricted to houses, where it is found not infrequently, though never
in any number."
"... The species [Bourletiella hortensis] is rather often found
in synanthropic situations (probably in connection with its preference for
almost bare habitats): on pavements, gravel roads, sport fields, flat roofs
covered with gravel, etc. From the last habitat they are often driven by
drought down into the houses, where they may suddenly appear in vast and most
annoying numbers. Each year some of these cases are brought to my attention."
Fay, R.W. in Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Nearctic:
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Entomobrya griseo-olivata[sic] (Packard 1873), by Fay 1958
Fay, R.W. 1958. Personal communication."
Fjellberg, A. (1980:55,77,85,93,116,119,121,134) Norway:
p.55: "Onychiurus cebennarius Gisin, 1956 ...
in flower pot in a house"
p.77: Folsomia candida (Willem, 1902) ...
In flower pot in a house in Bergen."
p.85: "Cryptopygus bipunctatus (Axelson, 1903) ...
Also reported from a flower pot in a house at N.Fron (Oppland)."
p.93: "Proisotoma minuta (Tullberg, 1871) ...
Also in flower pots indoor."
p.116: "Entomobrya spectabilis Reuter, 1890 ...
Under flower pots, etc. Indoor."
p.119: "Willowsia buski (Lubbock, 1869) ...
Sometimes indoor."
"Willowsia nigromaculata (Lubbock, 1873) ...
A frequent species in houses. More rare outdoor ..."
"Willowsia platani (Nicolet, 1841) ...
Reported by Lie Pettersen (1896) from a house at Romarheim
in Hosanger (Hordaland). Probably rare."
p.121: "Lepidocyrtus ruber Schött, 1902 ...
Some records from greenhouses and flower pots in E and W.Norway."
p.134: "Sminthurinus niger (Lubbock, 1876) ...
I have seen some specimens collected in flower pots in a house at Bergen."
"Sminthurinus trinotatus Axelson, 1905 ...
Some specimens in flower pots in a house near Bergen."
Gisin, H. (1962:20-21) Swiss:
"Genève, en pleine ville, quartier des Eaux-Vives, maison locative
située pas loin d'un grand peuplier, des centaines de
spécimens
[de Entomobrya purpurascens (PACKARD, 1873)]
dans une cuvette placée sous un chauffe-eau dans la
salle de bains, début de septembre 1961, leg. M. Mamboury. Ces
exemplaires appartiennent à la forme B de CHRISTIANSEN,
c.-à.d. le pigment violet forme des bandes transversales aux bords
postérieurs des segments."
Cited from Ellis (1974:233-234):
"Gisin, 1962, discusess three similar cases
[of Entomobryoides purpurascens (PACKARD, 1873)]
in Paris and Genève."
Greenslade, P. (1995:247,248,250,255,256) Australia:
p.247: "Entomobrya unostrigata STACH is one of the
most abundant and widely-distributed collembolan species on agricultural
land in southern Australia. It was collected for the first time in Australia
in January 1941 from a military hospital in Melbourne, Victoria, where it
was numerous, but misidentified as Entomobrya tenuicauda
SCHÖTT, (PESCOTT 1942)."
p.248: the misidentification with Entomobrya unostrigata is
defined as such:
"As Entomobrya tenuicauda nec
SCHÖTT 1917 sensu PESCOTT 1942."
p.250: "Entomobrya unostrigata has been confused with
E. tenuicauda SCHÖTT 1917, described from
Queensland, which also has a reduced anteapical tooth to the mucro.
However, E. tenuicauda differs in having broader dark pigment
bands on the posterior margins of the thoracic and abdominal segments
and two distinct bands on abd. IV, in the lack of a dorsal medial stripe
or pigment on vertex of head and smaller size, <2mm compared with
>2mm for E. unostrigata (SCHÖTT 1917
Fig. 16)."
p.256: "Records of E. unostrigata causing a nuisance in dwellings
were first made in 1941 (PESCOTT 1942) where it was said to be
"causing itch" in a hospital. Since then, it has been reported as infesting
houses on several occasions (ARNAUD, DAVIES
1980, Fig. 3, 4) and it is the most frequently recorded Collembolan from
houses in Australia (P. GREENSLADE, unpublished data). On
several additional occasions it was said to be causing irritation to the skin
and WOMERSLEY (quoted by PESCOTT 1942) has
suggested that the dense macrosetae, which cover the animals and are easily
detached, could be the cause of this irritation, but tests failed to
demonstrate any effect (P. GREENSLADE unpublished data).
All household records have been made in summer (Fig. 4) although the species
is present outside throughout the year. The animals seem to invade drains,
in the first instance possibly being attracted by the moist conditions and
presence of food in the form of fungi. For instance, shower curtains have
been described as "black" with these animals
(ARNAUD, DAVIES 1980).
CHRISTIANSEN (pers. comm.) noted swarming (migratory)
behaviour after harvesting a cotton field, animals covering the road were
so dense that they were "greying the ground" and causing vehicles to slip.
It is suggested that here lower moisture levels, caused by exposure of the
ground surface in the cotton fields after cropping, had caused individuals
to seek more humid conditions elsewhere. This seems likely also to be
the reason for summer invasion of damp areas in Australian houses as
conditions outside become excessively hot and dry."
Linnaniemi, W. (1907) cited from van den Bruel, W.E. (1945:38) Finland:
"D'après LINNANIEMI, la plupart des
espèces rencontrées dans les habitations y vivent dans la
terre des pots de fleurs, d'où ils se dispersent en partie lorsqu'ils
trouvent extérieurement au pot de fleurs une humidité
suffisante."
Lubbock, J. (1873:72) Great-Brittain:
"Lepidocyrtus curvicollis is found in cellars."
Mallis, A. (1954) cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Nearctic:
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Tomocerus spp., by Mallis 1954
Pseudosinella spp., by Mallis 1954
Heteromurus spp., by Mallis 1954"
Marlatt (1896) cited from Theobald, F.V. (1911:16) United States:
"MARLATT (2) records a Lepidocyrtus
infesting houses in the United States."
"(2) Canad. Entomol., XXVIII, 1896."
Maynard, E.A. (1951:14,73) Nearctic:
p.14:
"It is only rarely that Collembola are reported as household pests,
and then usually the damage is in the aesthetic sense. Unfortunately,
in the mind of the average layman, any small crawling animal is a "bug," and
in his mind one's house should never harbor a bug of any kind. How unfortunate
it is that if insects of whatever kind (including springtails) are to make
their presence known in one's residence it is usually when visitors are
present! As pointed out by Curran (1947) the presence of springtails in a house
at a nuisance level is an indication that some portion of the building is
abnormally damp and that steps should be taken to find the source of the
excess moisture (oftentimes a slowly leaking pipe). In such an environment,
where algae and fungi grow and serve as food, Collembola increase in numbers,
and their presence then becomes noticeable. The soil of potted house plants
may become teeming with some of the soil species, the result of rapid
reproduction under ideal conditions of moisture and warm temperatures."
p.73: "Onychiurus fimetarius ... is found ... in flower boxes
in houses ..."
Cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430):
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Onychiurus armatus (Tullberg, 1869), by Maynard 1951 *
Onychiurus fimetarius (Linnaeus, 1767), by Maynard 1951
Folsomia quadrioculata (Tullberg, 1871), by Maynard 1951 *"
* Note: these records cannot be confirmed as Maynard only
specifies 'flower pots' without mentioning 'in house'.
Nicolet, H. (1842:76) Swiss:
"Degeeria domestica. ... Cette éspèce se trouve dans les maisons,
ou elle vit solitaire; rare."
Patton & Evans (1931) cited from Bryk, F. (1955:1826) ?:
"Important: Springtails may become a nuisance in damp cellars in houses where
they may get into the ground floors, around sinks, and into the conservatories.
Should they prove a nuisance, a mixture of slaked lime and sulphur is recommended
by Herrick. It should be spread over the floor, shelves and the walls; a dry
atmosphere is inimical to these insects.
"
Scott, D.B. (1953) cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Nearctic:
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Hypogastrura armata (Nicolet, 1841) by Scott 1953
Entomobrya nivalis (Linnaeus, 1758) by Scott 1953"
Scott, H.G. (1958) cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Nearctic:
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Proisotoma frisoni Folsom, 1937, by Scott 1958"
Scott, H.G. (1960) cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Nearctic:
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Entomobrya atrocincta Schott, 1896, by Scott 1960"
Scott, H.G. (1961:263) USA:
"Isotomodes tenuis Folsom, 1937.
This is the only Isotomodes record from North America.
NEW MEXICO RECORD.
From flower pot, apartment, 5,100 ft, Albuquerque, Bernalillo Co., 25-iii-1955.
DISTRIBUTION. Iowa, Mass., N. M.
"
Cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Nearctic:
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Isotomodes tenuis Folsom, 1937, by Scott 1961"
Scott, H.G. (1963) cited from Ebeling, W. (1975) ?:
"Another cosmopolitan species, Entomobrya
atrocinta Schött (figures 336 and 337),
is a pest of dried milk powder."
Scott, H.G. (1966:20,21) USA:
"p.20: Building-Infesting Springtails:
Onychiurus armatus,
Isotomodes tenuis,
Folsomia sp.,
Proisotoma sp.,
Hypogastrura armata,
Lepidocyrtus sp.
p.21: Pests in general:
Entomobrya atrocincta, a pest of dried milk,
Orchesella sp., a man-infesting variety,
Seira platani, a pest of stored food,
Podura aquatica, common on water surfaces.
"
Snider, R. in Christiansen, K. (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Michigan:
"[Lepidocyrtus] is common here in Michigan.
I've had many questions about those little
critters under my bed by the thousands.
Here we have Lepidocyrtus paradoxus as the
common culprit. I remember a case in Flint, MI. where the folks were
ready to bail out. Another case in Monroe, MI. and another in Charlotte,
MI. All were slab based houses with tile floors. In the summer the
moisture builds up under furnature (especially if it is at hot, humid
summer) and the little [critters] reproduce like crazy.
I just tell the folks
to vacuum under the bed and maybe put a fan to use until the situation drys
out."
Soto, F.N. in Christiansen (1999 in 2001:in litt.) Indiana:
"... about the invading Lepidocyrtus.
I have seen L. nigrosetosus in houses (well, my parents
house in the country) but always as single individuals, so it does not
count as 'infesting'. Anyway, I presume that the case in California
involved L. fimicolus and the one in Indiana L. floridensis.
I
observed L. fimicolus in the field feeding exclusively on fungal
hyphae
growing on wet grass clipings, they ate the fungus like spaghetti. Maybe
the house in California had fungus growing in some places."
Yue, Q. in Christiansen, K (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Shanghai, China:
"I once collected Willowsia nigromaculata and
Entomobrya sp. in my
laboratory, they appeared together and in a large number. I also
discovered them in my kitchen, I think they mainly feed on crumbs of
food. They mainly appeared during the night nearby the washing tank. But
I never saw Lepidocyrtus sp in the house."
Waltz, B. in Christiansen, K. (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Indiana:
"
Typically we [in Indiana] get Willowsia in homes.
In the late 1980's I worked
with a hospital which was having collembola show up in its surgical rooms. It
turns out the Collembola (mostly Entomobrya and some
Lepidocyrtus) were being
sucked into the air ventilation systems from tall grasses near the intakes.
The hospital corrected the problem by placing finer filters on the air
system and pouring a concrete buffer area around the intakes."
Scott, H.G. (1966:20) :
"Entomobrya atrocincta (world-wide) is a pest of dried
milk powder.
At least 19 species of United States springtails have been reported
intimately associated with man."
More unpublished data on recent domestic infestations in the U.S.A. since 2003.05.12 can be found at " What's That Bug? Springtails! <http://www.whatsthatbug.com/springtails.html>".
Casterline, D.G (1954 in press) cited from Hurd, P.D. (1954:814) Alaska:
" ... and about 50 springtails (Collembola, Isotoma olivacea Tullberg.
The medical aspects, as well as the specific identification of the insects
involved, are to be reported by Donald G. Casterline, M.D.
(Calif. Mo. Medicine, in press)."
Cited from Altschuler, D.Z. & Casterline, D.G. (1997 in 1999:in litt.) Alaska:
"While obtaining all of these papers I had the pleasure of speaking
directly with the reporting physician Casterline -- who while retired
remembered the event quite well. There was little beyond his excellent
idea to x-ray the area of the sinuses where the discomfort was apparent and
where on x-ray there was distinct shading. He then aspirated the area and
left Hurd to do his own thing in the lab where he identified what you read
in the report. No discussion to my knowledge or reported by Casterline of
questions about immunity."
Hurd, P.D. (1954:814) Alaska:
"During the past two summers I have served as research entomologist
at the Arctic Research Laboratory, Point Barrow, Alaska."
"Apparently because of the use of the
aspirator,
a most unique case
of "myiasis" (or infestation) occured."
"Approximately 2 mo. after the completion of the past
summer's work at Point Barrow I became ill. During the week following the
onset of illness four major groups of insects (Coleoptera,
Collembola,
Diptera, Hymenoptera) were passed alive from the left antrum of
the sinus.
These insects included ...
and about 50 springtails (Collembola, Isotoma olivacea Tullberg.
The medical aspects, as well as the specific identification of the insects
involved, are to be reported by Donald G. Casterline, M.D.
(Calif. Mo. Medicine, in press)."
"It is believed that these protracted periods of dailly aspiration during
the summer contributed to a case of "myiasis" that is without parallel in its
origin and nature. Insofar as I have been able to ascertain none of the
insects reported herein have been previously shown to cause "myiasis" in man."
"Apparently the insects gained access to the sinus as eggs which passed
trough the fine mesh brass screen. Admittedly, it is almost unbelievable that
the insects should have undergone several stages in their metamorphosis
within the sinuses, but since the screen was so fine as to preclude the
possibility of the aspiration of adult insects, it must be concluded that
such was the case."
Cited from Hopkin, S.P. (1997:3):
"Hurd (1954) accidently infected his nasal sinuses with eggs
of a species of Isotoma during fieldwork and passed about 50
live springtails from his nose some two months later. Pooters
beware!"
Greenberg, Z. (1985) cited from Hopkin, S.P. (1997:3) ?:
"There is one case in the literature of a patient who was
diagnosed as harbouring an ectoparasitic population of Collembola
in her hair after complaining of an itchy scalp for over a year
(Greenberg 1985). However, the source of the 'infection'
was discovered to be a plant pot at the head of the patient's bed
which supported a healthy colony of an unidentified entomobryid
springtail. The patient was 'cured' by spraying the pots with
insecticide."
Snider, R. in Christiansen, K. (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Michigan:
"We have Lepidocyrtus paradoxus from the butt of a
woman who probably had an old fashioned picnic.
Her doctor sent the specimens in. You can't be too
careful when you tumble in the grass!"
Note: Possibly some infestations that do not cause dermatitis are just incidental, like the Greenberg and Hurd (1954) cases. In those cases, the Collembola are just annoying 'guests', a nuisance, rather than pests causing a disease. It is clear that not the patient should receive treatment then, but the real source of the infestation.
Coutelen, F. (1928:854) France, Beaune-la-Rolande:
"Il s'agit d'une femme de 60 ans, habitant la campagne, qui,
chaque été, depuis deus ans, a le cuir chevelu infesté de Collemboles;
les autres parties du corps sont indemnes. La présence de ces insectes sur le
cuir chevelu provoque chez la malade de vives démangeaisons sans altération
pathologique autre que des lésions de grattage secondaires; les parasiticides
couramment employés sont restés sans effet. Ici comme dans le cas
précédent [Frèche & Beille, 1896], aucune personne de
l'entourage de la malade n'héberge de Collemboles. Ces Collemboles,
recueillis par brossage du cuir chevelu au-dessus d'une cuvette pleine d'eau,
avaient été rapportés par nous au genre Lepidocyrtus,
Bourlet; M. DENIS, que nous tenons à remercier ici, a bien
voulu compléter cette diagnose: il s'agit d'une espèce très
banale, le Lepidocyrtus curvicollis Bourlet."
Cited from van den Bruel, W.E. in Collart, A. (1944:210):
"1928, COUTELEN : une femme de soixante ans dont la chevelure
est envahie depuis deux ans par Lepidocyrtus curvicollis BOURLET"
Cited from van den Bruel, W.E. (1945:35):
"Enfin COUTELEN a rapporté en 1928 un
troisième cas de découverte de Collembole sur l'homme. Il s'agit
d'une femme de soixante ans, habitant la campagne dans le Loiret et qui,
chaque été, depuis deux ans, avait le cuir chevelu infesté
de Lepidocyrtinus curvicollis BOURLET; aucune personne
de l'entourage de la malade n'était contaminée."
Cretschmar, M. in Bryk, F. (1955:1825) Germany:
"I had received a sample of the collembolan Orchesella cincta,
several specimens of which were found on a child, which were provided on the
assumption that they were ectoparasites."
Frêche, X. & Beille, L. (1896:70-71) France:
"M. X, agé de 70 ans, habite dans la Charente-Infériere une maison
comfortable et isolée en rase campagne; il est très soigneux de sa personne.
En août 1891 il fit un voyage aux Sables-d'Olonne, à la Rochelle et à l'île
d'Oloron et ne remarqua rien d'anormal. Mais quinze jours après son retour il
sentit de vives démangeaisons dans le cuir chevelu et y trouva de nombreux
parasites qu'il prit pour des poux. Un traitement mercuriel parut efficace.
A l'entree de l'hiver les parasites disparurent et M. X., n'en trouvant plus,
se crut définitivement débarrassé. Mais au printemps de 1892 de nouveaux parasites
reparurent et persisterent jusqu'en novembre. En 1893 nouvelle éclosion au
printemps et disparition à l'entrée de l'hiver. Les mêmes faits se sont renouvelés
en 1894, 1895, 1896, et cela malgré tous les soins de propreté et la
désinfection de tous les objets mobiliers. Les parasites semblent même devenir
de plus en plus abondants; à l'origine M. X. n'en trouvait que dans ses
cheveux qu'il porte habituellement fort longs, mais depuis 1894 ils circulent
sur le cou, le tronc et les membres qui sont absolument glabres.
Ce parasite ne détermine aucune lésion de la peau; le cuir chevelu, sur
lequel il est si abondant, n'offre aucune altération pathologique; il est
simplement génant et désagréable par ses mouvements. Il paraît appartenir
au genre Seira et avoisine la Seira domestica, mais sans lui
être identique; on ne peut le rapporter à aucune des espèces décrites par
Lubbock dans sa monographie classique.
Particularité curieuse: seul dans son entourage M. X. est atteint; ses
domestiques sont à peu près complètement épargnés."
Cited from Handschin, E. in Schulze, P. (1926:45):
"... und dann um eine nicht näher beschriebene Form,
wahrscheinlich eine Lepidocyrtinus, die Frèche und Breille[sic] (47)
mehr als lästigen und unangenehmen als gefährlichen Ectoparasiten
bei einem ihrer Patienten während Jahren beobachteten. Dabei soll die
Form regelmäBig trotz Desinfektionen der Wohnung immer wieder
erschienen sein und sich stets an den einen Hausbewohner gehalten haben."
Cited from Coutelen, F. (1928:853-854):
"En 1896, dans une note présentée à l'Académie
des Sciences FRÈCHE et BEILLE (3) signalaient
à leur tour un cas de 'parasitisme accidentel' par des Thysanoures, mais,
cette fois, chez l'homme. Il s'agissait d'un vieillard de 70 ans 'très
soigneux de sa personne, vivant dans une maison confortable, isolée et
située en rase campagne' dans la Charente-Inférieure. Durant six
ans, de 1891 à 1896, cet homme avait présenté de vives
démangeaisons au niveau du cuir chevelu où, d'autre part, il avait
constaté la présence de nombreux parasites'. Les auteurs
précités avaient reconnu dans ces insectes des Thysanoures du genre
Seira. D'abord cantonnés dans la chevelure du malade, ces
Thysanoures avaient fini par pulluler à tel point qu'ils circulaient sur
le cou, le tronc et les membres de cet homme; d'autre part, on n'avait relevé
sur son cuir chevelu aucune altération pathologique appréciable
et un traitement mercuriel avait été efficace.
FRÈCHE et BEILLE faisaient aussi
remarquer, dans leur note, qu'aucune autre personne de l'entourage du malade
n'était porteur de Seira."
Cited from van den Bruel, W.E. in Collart, A. (1944:210):
"1896, FRECHE et BEILLE : un vieillard infesté pendant plusieurs
années consécutives par un Sira sp., ou, plus
probablement, de l'avis de HANDSCHIN, par un Lepidocyrtinus;"
Cited from van den Bruel, W.E. (1945:35):
"FRECHE et BEILLE ont signalé
en 1896 le cas d'un vieillard de 70 ans, trés propre, portant des
cheveux longs et qui vivait dans une maison confortable et isolé
à la campagne, en Charente-Inférieure. Il souffrait depuis six
ans de démangeaisons à hauteur du cuir chevelu, résultant
de la présence de nombreux parasites. Il s'agissait, d'après les
auteurs, d'un Collembole paraissant appartenir au genre Sira;
HANDSCHIN, se basant sur le texte de cette communication, est
d'avis que l'insecte était plutot un Lepidocyrtinus. L'insecte
disparaissait à l'entrée de l'hiver, mais l'infection
recommençait chaque printemps jusqu'en novembre. Les Collemboles
finirent par pulluler en dépit de traitements mercuriels, des soins
de propreté et de la désinfection des objets mobiliers, au
point de circuler sur tout le corps du malade; il est remarquable
cependant que les personnes de l'entourage du vieillard n'étaient pas
contaminées."
Cited from Bryk, F. (1955:1824-1825) :
"Freche and Beille in the minutes of a meeting
of the Academy of Sciences in Paris (1896, page 70). A well-groomed man in his
seventies returning in August of 1891 from a journey to the island of d'Oloron sensed
numerous parasites in his hair, after two weeks or so, which he assumed to be fleas.
Treatment with a mercurial preparation proved to be beneficial. As winter came
around, he had gotten rid of the parasites and believed this to be the end of it, but in
the spring of 1892, they re-emerged and remained until November. The situation
repeated itself in 1893, followed by another disappearance in the winter. This
continued for several years, i.e., 1894, 1895 and 1896, regardless of the disinfection
of the patient's body and all of his household goods. 'The parasites seem to
become increasingly abundant.' At first, the animals appeared only in the hair,
which he carries very long, but since 1894, they were crawling on his neck, torso
and 'absolutely smooth and hairless limbs,' i.e., on his entirely hairless
extremities. These parasites leave no injuries of the skin, which exhibits no
'pathological change.' The animal is only vexing and unpleasant due to its
movements. The authors assume that the insect is a new species of the Sira[sic] genus.
Martini later determined it as Lepidocyrtus curvicollis.
"
Cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430):
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Sira buski (Lubbock, 1870), by Freche and Beille 1896"
Handschin, E. in Schulze, P. (1926:45) Germany:
"Mir selbst wurde 1925 eine Probe von Orchesella cincta
übergeben, die in mehreren Exemplaren auf einem Kinde gefunden und
als vermeintliche Ectoparasiten eingeliefert wurden."
Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430) Texas:
"Springtail insects (Orchesella albosa Guthrie, 1903,
forma ainslieri Folsom, 1924) were found infesting the heads
and pubic areas of a family in Buffalo, Leon County, Texas, in June 1961.
No dermatitis was reported due to this infestation,
and the source of the insects was not determined.
Based upon known habits of this species, some moldy household item
(perhaps bedding) was probably involved.
Orchesella albosa has never before been reported infesting man
or houses. Its chewing mouthparts are probably not capable of biting man."
The ecology of Orchesella albosa is discussed, domestic
springtail control is described, and a pictorial key to domestic Collembola
is presented.
Cited from Dasgupta, R. & Dasgupta, B. (1990:438):
"... a case of infestation by Collembola of the head and pubic region
of members of a family in Buffalo, Texas, U.S.A. However, the gut contents of
these insects were not examined."
Scott, H.G. (1966:19-20) :
"Orchesella albosa (North American
and European) has been recorded as infesting, without dermatitis, the head
and pubic areas of man."
van den Bruel, W.E. in Collart, A. (1944:210) Belgium:
" - M. W. E. VAN DEN BRUEL montre des
spécimens de Lepidocyrtinus domesticus (NIC.)
BÖRNER capturés sur la tete d'un enfant.
C'est le troisième[sic] cas de Collemboles vivant sur l'Homme connu
jusqu'ici
(1896, FRECHE et BEILLE : un vieillard infesté pendant plusieurs
années consécutives par un Sira sp., ou, plus
probablement, de l'avis de HANDSCHIN, par un Lepidocyrtinus;
1926, HANDSCHIN : un enfant porteur de Orchesella cincta
LINN. ;
1928, COUTELEN : une femme de soixante ans dont la chevelure
est envahie depuis deux ans par Lepidocyrtus curvicollis BOURLET).
Le cas observé à Bruxelles diffère des
précédents par les points suivants: 1. les sujets sont citadins
et non plus campagnards ; 2. ils vivent en appartement dans un immeuble neuf
offrant de larges fenetres, garni d'un mobilier moderne et dépourvu
de plantes ; 3. il y a eu contamination : plusieurs membres de la famille
(père, mère, un enfant) ont hébergé le Collembole,
deux enfants en ont été exempts ; 4. les parents sont jeunes,
très propres, les enfants sont bien soignés, la maison
est fort bien tenue."
van den Bruel, W.E. (1945:34-41) (Communication
présentée le 26 juin 1943) Belgium:
p.35-36: "Le nouveau cas de Collembole vivant sur l'homme venu à notre
connaissance diffère quelque peu des précédents. Il s'agit
d'un garçonnet de neuf ans vivant en pleine ville, à Bruxelles, avec ses
parents, dans une maison neuve et en excellent état d'entretien. Les
restrictions dues à la guerre ont engendré une augmentation
anormale des cas d'infection par les poux chez les enfants. Le garçonnet en
question a été contaminé par ces parasites à
l'école, deux mois avant les observations; il a transmis l'infection
à sa jeune maman. Un traitement approprié a mis fin à
cet accident. Cependant l'enfant observe ensuite à l'école,
par deux fois, un insecte sautant de sa tete sur le pupitre. Ses parents ne
pretent aucune attention au récit de l'incident jusqu'au jour où
le père remarque un Collembole qui bondit sur sa table de travail,
dans son propre appartement. Ensuite la maman constate par deux fois la chute
d'un Collembole dans le lavabo alors qu'elle se coiffe, et elle retrouve deux
autres insectes en peignant le garçonnet. Les frères et soeurs de
l'enfant, plus jeunes, ne sont pas contaminés, mais quinze jours plus
tard, une belle-soeur, qui recoit fréquemment la visite de la famille
et qui appréhendait la contagion, surprend chez elle aussi un
Collembole lui sautant de la tete sur la table. Depuis, il n'y a plus eu,
semble-t-il, de nouvelle contamination. Les personnes atteintes sont
très propres; elles n'ont jamais ressenti un prurit quelconque.
L'appatement est fort bien tenu et en excellent état, éclairé
par de grandes fenetres, extremement sec et garni d'un mobilier neuf; il ne
renferme pas de plantes cultivées en pots. M. MARLIER,
que nous remercions ici, a bien voulu déterminer les exemplaires du
Collembole que nous possédions; il s'agit de Lepidocyrtinus
domesticus (NIC) BÖRNER. Il a
lui-meme capturé à plusieurs reprises des individus de cette
espèce dans des maisons de l'agglomération bruxelloise."
p.39: "Pour le cas qui nous a occupé, il est vraisemblable que le
lieu d'infection est le domicile des patients et non pas, comme ceux-ci le
croyaient, la plaine de sable où jouaient les enfants."
p.40 (conclusion): "Les Collemboles peuvent etre considerées
jusqu'à un certain point comme ectoparasites pour les personnes
susceptibles d'etre infestées, car: 1. l'infection est durable;
2. les insectes reviennent avec obstination sur ces sujets; 3. ils se
nourrissent peutetre des sécrétions du cuir chevelu ou meme
des débris pelliculaire; 4. ils sont susceptibles parfois de
contaminer un nouvel individu. Leur présence ne peut donc etre
considerée comme purement accidentelle. Ils sont cependant des
hotes absolument anodins, incapables d'occasionner la moindre lésion
du cuir chevelu."
Vysotskaya, S.O. (1958) cited from Dasgupta, R. & Dasgupta, B. (1990:438) Russia:
"... in certain Collembola infesting rodents near Leningrad, she could
find signs of transition to ectoparasitism from a free-living habit."
Amin, O.M. (1996:64) ?:
"The closest published references to the presented
case1, 2 reported springtails (Insecta: Collembola)
causing pruritic dermatitis in humans; collembolans are generally
regarded as saprophagous and phytophagous insects.
1. Hunter GW, Frye WW, Schwartzwelder JC, 1960.
A Manual of Tropical Medicine. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
2. Scott HG, Wiseman JS, Stojanovich CJ. 1962.
Collembola infesting man. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am: 528-530."
Amin, O.M. (2001) Arizona:
Amin, O.M. (2003:21,24) U.S.A.:
Amin, O.M. (2004:2,7) U.S.A.:
p.21(2003),2(2004): "The cutaneous aspects [of the Neurocutaneous Syndrome (NCS)]
include ... lesions [that] may also be on the scalp where they may be
associated with infestations of springtails
(Collembola).1
"
"While NCS itself is not a contagious condition, superimposed opportunistic
infections on open sores may be. Initial infection with fungus or bacteria
appear to attract subsequent infestations with many arthropod species,
especially springtails (Collembola: Insecta).
1,
5,
6,
7
"
"Black specks associated with such infections appear to be metabolic waste
(fecal elements) of these organisms or mycelial masses of certain fungal
species."
"Arthropods identified from sores include fleas (Siphonaptera), caterpillars
(Lepidoptera), wasps and ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), winged flies
and midges (Diptera), thrips (Thysanoptera), ticks, mites and spiders
(Arachnida) and springtails (Collembola).
1,4
While springtails have close association with sores in many NCS patients,
it should be emphasized that they, and other opportunistic infections
represent aggravating but not causal factors of NCS sores.
"
p.24(2003),7(2004): "In April, 2001, LG moved to an apartment which was heavily infested
with mold and mites. Lesions started appearing on LG's face which quickly
became red hot as if on fire. Her legs became swollen and painfully burning.
By May, 2001, LG had several open lesions (6 mm to 2 cm in diameter)
accompanied by erythema, on her face and scalp. Her cheek pulsated as the facial
lesions seemed to track to the chin where the most fulminating lesion was;
nearest to her teeth. Springtails (Collembola) and fibers were recovered from
these sites.
"
Amin, O.M. (2012:14) U.S.A.:
"Our early reports on this syndrome [NCS] included the description of
a case with many facial opportunistic infections from Oklahoma (Amin, 1996)
and the first naming and diagnosis of NCS from 3 more cases, with a
special reference to fibers and springtails (Collembola) (Amin, 2001).
By 2003, we were able to provide a comprehensive diagnosis of NCS and
establish the link to dental toxins as the causative agents.
"
Beccati, M., Gallo, M.G., Chiavassa, E. & Peano, A. (2011:1-4) Italy:
p.1: "The organisms,
found by skin scrapings, were identified as Proisotoma
spp. (Collembola: Isotomidae). The cat
presented with dermatological lesions (itchy, furfuraceous
dermatitis), and we speculate that they were
due to this infestation. The pathogenic role of the
Collembola was hypothesized because of the large
number of organisms, the presence of eggs indicating
an active reproduction cycle, the lack of other
pathogens (fleas, mites or lice) and the clinical recovery
accompanied by the disappearance of Collembola
following treatment. The owner seemed to be
affected by the infestation, because a few days after
having purchased the cat, she developed a pruriginous
papular dermatitis on the neck and the arms,
which disappeared shortly after treatment of the kitten
and a careful washing of all of its toys and other
accoutrements."
p.2: "The organisms were later identified at the Department of
Evolutionary Biology of the University of Siena (Italy) [by Romano Dallai] as
Proisotoma spp. (probably Proisotoma minuta; Collembola:
Isotomidae). The uncertainty in the specific identification
was due to the presence in the sample of immature
organisms that were difficult to identify."
... it is reasonable to assume that the infestation derived
from the place of purchase. It is impossible to establish
whether the infestation of the owner was transmitted
through contact with the cat, its gadgets or the plants
bought in the same shop. In any case, the human clinical
signs are not attributable to a zoonotic disease, because
the pet was at most a passive carrier of an organism harboured
from the environment."
p.4: "... this kind of infestation may be called at most a `pseudozoonosis'.
As noted above, the owner seemed to suffer a
mild, transient infestation, and all symptoms disappeared
without the need for therapy, after treatment of the kitten
and careful washing of all of its toys and accoutrements.
In conclusion, this is the first case of an apparent infestation
by springtails in a cat. There is a strong suspicion
that these organisms were responsible for the clinical
signs observed in the cat and its owner, although other
parasitic causes, ... , cannot be ruled out
definitively.
"
Bryk, F. (1955:1822-1826) Sweden:
p.1823: "The female patient, a 60-year-old married housewife had been
suffering for two years from a 'nervous disorder.' She had consulted various
physicians, including dermatologists. However, none were able to determine the
cause of the medical problem, which manifested itself as a weak, although,
annoying itching, and considered being of a nervous type. In the end, the
patient herself managed to detect the culprit, which resided in the genitals
and anus, organs that are difficult to access.
... Initially, the patient believed that the creatures causing her discomfort
were lice. They caused irritation, especially at night. They crawled out of
their hiding-places. She vaguely felt how she was being 'stung' by these
creatures, leaving small red pricks on the skin of her torso all the way up
to the arms.
... the springtails were present in the bathroom, crawling on the walls, on
the damp floor, in the drain, and the toilet.
'Especially, the toilet brush was teeming with these parasites.'
... Associate professor Karl-Herman Forsslund determined the animals as
Sira[sic] plantani[sic] Nic. Furthermore, he had the animals examined by a
specialist in Copenhagen, Dr. S. L. Tuxen, who confirmed Dr. Forsslund's
diagnosis, and also discovered a single specimen of a closely-related
Sira[sic] buski Lubbock among the examined animals.
p.1824: "... The statements by
Martini (1952), page 120 and 354 about collembolans are immaterial or plainly
misleading.
I already pointed out that collembolans do not have this ability to bite. Furthermore,
Martini mentions Lepidocyrtus curvicollis as an occasional parasite sometimes
assumed to nestle in human hairs.
Martini's statement about the occurrence of springtails in human hair likely
refers to the unusual case reported by Freche and Beille in the minutes of a meeting
of the Academy of Sciences in Paris (1896, page 70)."
p.1826: "... In analogy with the scientific names of diseases caused by insects such as
Myiasis or Phthiriasis, I suggest the name Siracis for the illness caused by Sira[sic], as
discussed in detail above.
"
Christiansen, K. (1999:in litt.) ?:
"There does seem to be a reasonable record of an
allergic reaction to scales of Seira domestica..."
Dasgupta, R. & Dasgupta, B. (1990:438) India:
"We report that certain collembolan insects in our laboratory
(Hypogastrura sp.) have exhibited a parasitic propensity, attacking
newts (Tylototriton verucosus) and toads (Bufo himalayanus),
causing running sores in the skin of these animals.
Other Collembola (Seira indica), whose gut contents were examined,
were engorged with blood from the newt. We believe that this is the first
record of these insects feeding on blood."
Frye, F.L. (1996:2-7) Iowa:
"
... Recently, I was contacted by an official of the National Pediculosis
Society who was investigating the possibility that all members of a
family that was living in Iowa and suffering from very sever and
intensely pruritic mutifocal head, trunk, and pubic dermatitis were
infested with parasitic collembolan (springtail) insects. "
"... Routine tests and biopsies were negative for the presence of Herpesviral
dermatitis, mite infestation (scabies), and head- and bodylouse
infestation (pediculosis). However, the white nit-like objects that
adhered to individual head hairs probably were the eggs of headlice.
Some skin biopsies revealed the presence of arthropod insects that were
characterized as collembolas. Because of their similar small size, it
is unlikely that the springtails used the headlice as phoretic transport
vehicles to move between hosts. Therefore, it appears that some
patients were simultaneously infested with both springtails and
headlice.
A literature search revealed an expanding source of information that
documents that springtails have become true parasites of a variety of
animal hosts even though they lack specialized feeding structures. Once
the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia began to investigate
pruritic dermatitis of unknown pathogenicity, they found 123 cases.
"
"... Whether the immune status of the affected individuals played a major
role in promoting springtail parasitism or whether insecticide
resistance was a component in these cases is entirely conjectural;
however, both factors have been suggested as possibilities.
"
"... To the date of this writing, the taxa that have been reported to induce
intense pruritic dermatitis in man are: Entomobryo nivalis and E.
tenuicauda (Hunter, et al, 1960; Scott, et al, 1962); Hypogastrura
manubrialis and Sira buski (Megnin, 1839[sic]; Freche and Beille, 1896). In
addition, Orchesella albosa var. ainslieri was recorded infesting humans
without causing pruritis (Scott, et al, 1962).
In summary, these cases of collemboliasis may be only medical
curiousities, or they may be the first 'sentinel' instances of a
significant emerging parasitism."
Hunter, G.W., Frye, W.W. & Schwartzwelder, J.C. (1960) cited
from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430)
Nearctic:
"Entomobrya nivalis (cosmopolitan) and Entomobrya tenuicauda
(Australasian) have been reported as causing a pruritic dermatitis in man."
Cited from Dasgupta, R. & Dasgupta, B. (1990:438):
"...some of these insects may be parasitic, causing pruritic
dermatitis in man."
Lim, C.S.H, Lim, S.L., Chew, F.T., Ong, T.C. & Deharveng, L. (2009:1-5) Singapore:
"Based on our findings, it is unlikely that dermatitis, either
through an allergic or direct histaminic action, was caused in the
nurses and healthy volunteers by this undescribed Drepanura
species.
"
Mackie, T.T., Hunter, G.W. & Brooke Worth, C. (1945:541-542) Australia:
"The Collembola are primarily phytophagous and are not usually
thought of as medically important insects. Two Australian species,
however, Entomobrya multifasciata Tullb. and E. tenuicauda Schött have
recently been recorded as attacking man, the patients complaining of a
sharp, biting sensation followed by irritation and papules similar to
mosquito bites, with pruritus."
Cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430):
"Entomobrya nivalis (cosmopolitan) and Entomobrya tenuicauda
(Australasian) have been reported as causing a pruritic dermatitis in man."
Cited from Ebeling, W. (1975):
"They [Collembola] have never been incriminated in the
transmission of any human disease, but Entomobrya nivalis L.,
a cosmopolitan species, has been reported to cause an itching
type of dermatitis in man, ..."
See also the original publication of
Pescott (1942).
See also the revision of Pescott's specimens of E. tenuicauda by
Greenslade (1995).
Cited from Dasgupta, R. & Dasgupta, B. (1990:438):
"...some of these insects may be parasitic, causing pruritic
dermatitis in man."
Martini, M. (1952:354) cited from Bryk, F. (1955:1824) ?:
"Very discomforting mosquito-like skin
irritations attributable to collembolans of the genus Entomobrya
attempting to bite.
"
Mégnin, J.P. (1878) cited from Handschin, E. in Schulze, P. (1926:45) Nearctic:
"Es handelt sich um den Megninschen Podurhippus pityriasicus
(= Hypogastrura manubrialis Tullb.), der auf den Wunden eines schlecht
gehaltenen Gaules in Menge angetroffen wurde"
Cited from van den Bruel, W.E. (1945:34-35) :
"MEGNIN a observé en 1878 des quantités
innombrables de Collemboles vivant dans les produits de sécrétion
épidermique de plusieurs chevaux d'une meme écurie affectés
d'un pityriasis général et chronique. L'espèce en question,
décrite comme nouvelle sous le nom de Podurhippus pityriasicus,
a été ramenée en synonymie avec Hypogastrura
manubrialis TULLB."
Cited from Bryk, F. (1955:1825):
"It would be of interest to veterinarians that according to M. Megnin another collembolan,
Podurhippus pytyriasicus[sic], was found in vast numbers in the wounds of a poorly-kept jaded
horse."
Cited from Scott, H.G., Wiseman, J.S. & Stojanovich, C.J. (1962:430):
"... species of Nearctic Collembola ... reported intimiately
associated with man (only earliest reference given):
Hypogastrura manubrialis (Tullberg, 1869) by Mégnin 1839[sic] 1
1 Under another name."
Cited from Bellinger (1999:in litt.):
"Mégnin (1878) proposes Podurhippus pityriasicus for a springtail
found in sores on skin of horses. The species is certainly a
Hypogastrura."
Note: It is possible that
people that work with horses are troubled by Collembola that
live in the stables and feed on hyphen of fungi.
Fungal infections of the horse's skin/hair could eventually also
infect the skin/hair of the workers. Anyway, in this case, the springtail
is actually 'parasiting' the fungus and not man.
Alternitavely, the Collembola were possibly atrackted to the
fluids produced by the wound. Hypogastrura has sucking mouthparts.
Mertens, J. in Christiansen, K. (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Belgium:
"
Several years ago our Faculty of Medicine once offered me
'strange small insects', which were
considered as being responsible for causing allergic reactions on the
skin of a woman.
Those insects were Seira domestica. I could prove that the scales of
Seira on the cushioned seats caused the allergy.
As you know, Lepidocyrtus, has scales too.
"
Mertens, J. (2004:in litt.) Belgium:
"In 1976 (or 1977), our Faculty of Medicine was puzzled by a
rare case of skin allergy in a woman, living near Ghent. The allergy was
caused by the scales of Seira domestica on a cushion of a rotan chair.
Whenever the woman used the rotan chair, the allergic skin response
occured (and only then).
The chair was located in the veranda, which was quite moisty and where the
temperature was enjoyable.
It turned out that the hollow rotan branches of the chair hosted a population
of Seira domestica. During the night, they left their hiding place
and crawled all over the chair. The cushion collected many of the lost scales,
causing as such the allergic reaction."
Nasca, M.R., Lacarrubba, F. & Micali G. (2015:S76-77) Italy:
Pescott, R.T.M. (1942:68-69) Australia:
"In 1939, specimens of springtails were received from a Melbourne
specialist who stated that they were causing skin troubles on a female
patient. The insect in question was the species Entomobrya multifasciata
Tull., a European species originally described in 1871, but which is now
cosmopolitan in its distribution. Womersley (3) records it as being
common in cultivated areas in the Australian States. The symptoms of this case
were as follows : the patient experienced a sharp biting sensation, followed
by intolerable itching. There were few marks on the body with an occasional
excoriated papule, while the irritation was distributed fairly generally
over the trunk and limbs, but was most marked around the waist. Several
specimens of the insect responsible for the condition were found on the
patient's body. She received no active treatment, but her clothes and
bedclothes were sterilised and this was sufficient to destroy the insect
and thereby remove the irritation.
On considering the origin of this infection, it appeared that the
patient had recently moved into a new house where the garden was in the
process of being made. The insects had apparently migrated to the patient
when the grass, weeds and soil outside were disturbed."
"In 1941, specimens of another springtail were received from a military
hospital in Victoria, where skin irritations were occuring among the
nursing staff. The species concerned was Entomobrya tenuicauda
Schott., a native insect originally described in 1917 from Queensland,
later recorded by Womersley (3) from Western Australia and
Tasmania, and now from Victoria. In this instance, the presence of the insect
produced on several nurses raised lumps very similar to mosquito bites,
and which later were very irritable. In one instance there was also a good
deal of reddening of the calf of the leg. These conditions lasted for
somewhat less than twenty-four hours in each case, but reoccurred the next day,
probably from more 'bites'.
On analysing this case, it appears certain that the insects were
introduced into the hospital with flowers, and from there moved on the
affected nurses during their normal routine duties."
"3. Womersley, H. : Primitive Insects of South Australia,
Gov. Printer, Adelaide, 1939."
Womersley suggested that the easily detached,
long ciliated hairs of Entomobrya species undoubtedly would cause
skin irritations.
Pescott concludes that severe skin irritation can be caused by certain
species of Collembola:
"Typical symptoms are a biting sensation,
followed by intense irritation and the production of small pimple-like bodies."
See also the revision of Pescott's specimens of E. tenuicauda by
Greenslade (1995).
Scott, H.G. (1966:19) :
"Springtails have never been incriminated in the transmission of
human disease. Entomobrya nivalis (world-wide) and
Entomobrya tenuicauda (Australian) have been reported as causing
an itching type of dermatitis in man."
Cited from Ebeling, W. (1975) :
"Springtails crawling or hopping on the
skin may cause itching, and when crushed on the skin,
they may cause a mild, localized, allergic response.
(Scott et al., 1962; Scott, 1966c)."
Altschuler, D.Z. et al. (2004:87-95) U.S.A.:
"Twenty
individuals diagnosed with delusory parasitosis participated in a
single site clinical study under the auspices of the National
Pediculosis Association (NPA) and the Oklahoma State Department of
Health. The objective of this study was to determine if there were any
common factors in skin scrapings collected from this population. These
individuals, whose symptoms were originally attributed to lice or
scabies, were part of a larger group reporting symptoms of
stinging/biting and/or crawling to the NPA. Multiple skin scrapings
from each person were microscopically examined. Any and all fields of
view that appeared incongruous to normal human skin were digitally
photographed. When the photographic images were initially evaluated, no
common factor was identified. However, more extensive scrutiny using
imaging software revealed evidence of Collembola in 18 of the 20
participants."
"The images were reviewed by entomologists and the presence of Collembola
verified and identified as representative of the families Isotomidae
and Entomobryidae."
"It is possible Collembola found in lesions are opportunistic and
that fungal infections or allergic reactions to pollen, fungi, spores
or other organisms may contribute to or be responsible for the symptoms
these individuals experience." "Collembola do not
need to be human parasites in order to be present in the skin scrapings."
Note:
The in the study participating entomologists have identified the Collembola
based only on the digitally enhanced images of the skin scrapings;
no specimens have been deposited in collection for further reference.
All the images presented in the paper, except the enhanced version of
figure 2,
do not appear to be from living or recently dead specimens or body parts broken
off such but specimens in advanced states of decay. Comparing the images with
Collembola from Canadian and Burmese Cretaceous amber where
much decay had occurred in many specimens, as well as with thousands of pitfall
trap specimens in various states of decay, it is obvious
with some security that the specimens shown in the photographs, if they are
Collembola, are badly decayed. Therefore, since the specimens were freshly
taken from new scrapings, "The finding of images from 18 of the 20
symptomatic study participants supports their contention that they have
something crawling on or under their skin." is not supported, unless the
other pictures are far better. Under the assumption that the best pictures
were chosen for the article, this seems highly unlikely.
If Collembola were crawling then the specimens should be part of living
specimens.
It may well be evidence that at past times Collembola were
involved in a crawling sensation, such as caused by allergic reactions
as described by Pescott (1942:68-69).
The authors should provide a skin sample including a collembolan specimen
to prove their point.
The case is considered unproven unless an animal is provided.
See also the discussion of the pareidolia phenomenon by
Berenbaum (2005).
Barclay, L. (2004) U.S.A.
"In [the] single-site clinical study conducted by the NPA and the
Oklahoma State Department of Health, multiple skin scrapings from each
of 20 individuals diagnosed with delusory parasitosis were examined
microscopically. The subjects were part of a larger group of more than
1,500 persons reporting symptoms of stinging, biting, and/or crawling
to the NPA, and their symptoms were originally attributed to lice or
scabies.
There were more than 300 anomalous findings in skin scrapings from
the 20 subjects and none in the controls. These anomalies included
pollen, spores, hyphae, mycelium, algae, and what appeared to be insect
eggs, larvae, or embryos. Although digital photography of any and all
fields of view that appeared incongruous to normal human skin initially
revealed no common factor, more extensive examination using imaging
software revealed evidence of Collembola in 18 of the 20 subjects."
Note:
The case is considered unproven unless an animal is provided.
See note on Altschuler et al., 2004.
See also the discussion of the pareidolia phenomenon by
Berenbaum (2005).
Benecke, M (2004) Germany:
"Im vergangenen Jahr nun nahm der Fall des Randy Yaskal eine
überraschende Wendung, als Hautschuppen von ihm und einigen seiner
Leidensgenossen zum Staatlichen Gesundheitsamt in Oklahoma sowie zum
Naturkundemuseum in New York gelangten. Dort entsannen sich die
Medizinerin Deborah Altschuler und der Insektenkundler Louis Sorkin
einiger Versuche des verstorbenen rumánischen Veterinár-Parasitologen
Neculai Dulceanu. Der hatte schon mehrfach in der Haut vermeintlich
psychisch Kranker winzige Insekten gefunden. So entdeckte man in der
Haut einer 80-jáhrigen Frau alle Entwicklungsstadien (Eier, Puppen,
erwachsene Tiere) von Collembolen (Springschwánzen). Die flügellosen
Insekten haben es gern warm und feucht.
Die Wissenschaftler wollten es nun genauer wissen. Sie baten zwanzig
Freiwillige, die als uneinsichtig-verbohrte Insektenwahn-Patienten
galten, aber weder an Láusen noch an Krátze litten, zur Hautprobe. Und
die Beobachtungen des Rumánen bestátigten sich: Bei 18 der 20
untersuchten Patienten lebten tatsáchlich Collembolen (wieder in allen
Entwicklungsstadien) in und unter der Haut. Sind die Springschwánze
Ursache des Juckens und Stechens? Hat der angebliche Wahn also eine
reale Ursache?
Franz[sic] Jannssens[sic] von der Universitát Antwerpen hatte schon vor Jahren das
Wissen über menschennah auftretende Springschwánze zusammengetragen und
ermittelt, dass die Tierchen sehr háufig Gáste in menschlichen
Behausungen sind. Auf manchen Duschvorhángen bilden sie einen echten
Collembolen-Teppich; oder sie wandern zu Tausenden in Wohnungen ein,
wenn es ihnen draußen zu ungemütlich wird. Dennoch krabbeln sie nicht
jedem unter die Haut. Das US-Forscherteam vermutet, dass die Haut der
Befallenen schon vorher durch Pilze, Sporen, Pollen oder andere
Allergene angegriffen ist. Die Springschwánze nisten sich dann in
bereits bestehende Wunden ein."
Note:
The case described by Neculai Dulceanu is regarded as a sample contamination.
See note on Terinte et al., 1998?.
The case described by Deborah Altschuler is considered unproven unless an animal is provided.
See note on Altschuler et al., 2004.
See also the discussion of the pareidolia phenomenon by
Berenbaum (2005).
Berenbaum, M (2005) USA:
"This article [Altschuler et al., 2004] hit the entomo-l list-serve in November 2004
and generated a heated discussion over whether the images were real or rather
were the result of well-meaning or misguided computer enhancement...".
"In other words, collembolans in skin scrapings might be just another example
of the phenomenon of pareidolia, 'a type of illusion or misperception involving
a vague or obscure stimulus being perceived as something clear and distinct'
(Carroll 2005, http://skepdic.com/pareidol.html)."
"Pareidolia is a widespread phenomenon and is in fact part of human culture.".
"Entomologists are not immune from the phenomenon;...".
Christian, E. in Christiansen (1998 in 2001:in litt.) Germany & Austria:
"... [This] reminds me of
several similar cases in Germany and Austria which turned out to be symptoms
of what psychiatrists call 'Dermatozoenwahn' (delusional dermatozoonosis).
This serious paranoid psychosis needs medical treatment, but patients
usually refrain from visiting a competent doctor. They rather consult the
parasitologist or (quite frequently) the entomologist, being often
well-informed about their illusive parasites. ..."
"A wealth
of medical litterature is available on this topic, but entomologists have
not fully realized the problem as yet. I am confronted with two or three
cases each year, because Collembola are among the frequently fancied plagues."
Desoubeaux G., Saada A., Bailly E., Guiguen C. & Chandenier J. (2014:628) France :
"We report a neurocutaneous case of delusional parasitosis
involving atypical bugs called Collembola or "springtails".
...
This short clinical note focuses on the medical risk for
diagnostic confusion arising from the accidental discovery
of insects in the human environment, especially when skin
symptoms are reported. A correct entomological identification
avoids misdiagnosis and enables better medical care.
...
In this context, recurrent
complaints of skin disorders caused by small bugs creeping
under the skin should be considered as symptoms signaling
psychiatric disease rather than a real entomological
issue. These delusional parasitoses are described as part
of Ekbom's syndrome, a type of psychosis in which
subjects strongly believe they are infested."
Frye, F.L. (1997:12-15) USA:
"... During 1996
and early 1997 twenty supposed cases of human
parasitism claimed to be associated with insects
and other invertebrates, including but not
limited to collembolans, were submitted
initially to the National Pediculosis Association (NPA)
and then submitted to me for
microscopic identification and evaluation.
Investigation of these patients and the objects
that were recovered from them resulted in
examination of over 1,000 individual specimens.
In each instance, one or more physicians had
diagnosed these patients as suffering from
'delusional parasitosis'. All of the patients --
and the NPA -- thought that this diagnosis was
incorrect, and perceived it as being highly
pejorative."
"... The variety of 'organisms' that were identified
microscopically included: two intact
collemobolans[sic] ('springtails'), one partial set of
collembolan abdominal tergites with an intact
spring-like furcula still attached, one
lepidopteran larva ('caterpillar'), several ants,
a tiny ichneumon wasp, numerous assorted
coleopteran beetles (including flour beetles) and
beetle body parts, several winged dipeteran
flies and midges, empty flea egg cases, one
neuropteran 'ant-lion' (which the patient
swears she extracted from a sore on her face),
one psocid 'book louse', numerous urticarial
setae from dermestid carpet beetles, two
spiders and several mites. [(fig. 1)]."
"... In analyzing over a year's effort to elucidate the
cause of this puzzling spate of human suffering,
it is now sufficiently clear to me that the
collembolans that were initially blamed as the
prime supects were unfairly maligned.
Certainly, they (like so many other arthopods)
possess hair-like setae which, when they come
into contact with sensitive mammalian skin, can
cause irritation and even florid urticaria."
"... In mid-1996, I was invited by the NPA and
Harvard University's School of Tropical
Medicine and Public Health to present a paper
describing my findings. I entitled the lecture
'Evaluation of patients presenting with
suspected pediculosis, scabies or delusional
parasitosis'. In that lecture, I exhibited photo-
micrographs of some of the organisms and
inanimate objects that I had identified from the
patients who were referred to me by the NPA.
The final slide that I displayed was the quote by
Dr. Daniel E. Koshland, former editor of the
prestigious Science magazine, which I believe
represents my reaction to this interesting foray
into comparative medicine, 'The gene for
unbridled dedication to a lost cause will always
overwhelm the pure logic gene'.
In a wide-ranging colloquial discussion
following my presentation, I found that my
colleagues at Harvard who also have examined
microscopically numerous 'fibre bugs' and
other self-collected specimens from patients
believing themselves to be infested, had come to
the same inescapable conclusion as I had that
the vast majority of these unfortunate persons
were tormented by a disorder that should most
appropriately be treated by a sympathetic
psychiatrist."
Delusional parasitosis is a misunderstood and increasingly common syndrome.
Christiansen, K. & Bellinger, P. (1980:922) North America:
"Willowsia nigromaculata (Lubbock), 1873 ...
This species is the commonest house springtail in North America, and
has also been found in shallow caves and cave entrances; because of its
abundance in laboratories, it is a common contaminant in samples,
and records from other habitats are therefore suspect."
Mertens, J. (2004:in litt.) Belgium:
"In 1977, in a hospital in Ghent, an insect was
reported regularly in 'sterile' cel cultures. It turned out that the isolation
material of the laminar flow cabinet, in which the cultures were stored, hosted
a healthy population of Entomobrya albocincta. Occasionaly, specimens
were blown into the cabinet with the 'sterile' air."
Terinte, C., Dulceanu, N.I., Terinte, R. & Dobrescu, G. (1998?) Roumania:
There is no recorded case of a Collembola burrowing in anything anywhere or found imbedded in any tissue. Indeed they are morphologically and physiologically ill suited for this. Their respiration requires gaseous exchange through the cuticle, impossible if surrounded by a tissue. If there were forms burrowing in human tissue they should be highly specialised in form, such as having a narrow, elongated wormlike body with strongly reduced eyes, antennae, limbs and furcula and having highly modified mouthparts for byting through human skin and underlying tissue. Entirely different from the entomobryid surface forms, having well developed eyes, limbs and long furcula, as reported by Altschuler et al., 2004:87-95. Collembola that live in the soil are limited to the interstices of the soil between soil grains, those living on plants entirely to the surfaces. Where clays have very small spaces between grains, Collembola do not occur. Those living elsewhere are found only in cavities. The one case of an animal commensal lives with hermit crabs in the spaces between the animal and the adopted shell. It is highly morphologically specialised for this habitat and belongs to a very distinct genus and family. Thus if Collembola were in fact the cause of a crawling sensation on the skin they should be on the surface, visible to the naked eye and collectible. Since the specimens or putative fragments as reported by Altschuler et al., 2004:87-95 appear to be Entomobryidae or Isotomidae this is particularly true. (Christiansen & Bernard, 2008).
It is possible that there is an allergic reaction to Collembola tissue or
integument on the part of some people which produces the crawling-on-skin
irritation symptoms.
If so that would be readily testable by smearing Collembola on small
unaffected sections of skin of people known to be sensitive to the disease
and seeing if there is a response. One record of a
case of pruritis from the scales of the common Old World household
Collembola - Seira domestica is known
(Mertens in Christiansen, 1998 in 2001:in litt.).
Lim et al. (2009:1-5) showed that it is unlikely
that the entomobryid Drepanura is the cause of dermatitis,
either through an allergic or direct histaminic action.
Keeping the house dry is the best preventative measure.
Collembola will not reproduce in the house unless:
a) there are regions with over 80% relative humidity, and
b) there is an ample supply of something with fungal growth on it nearby.
When they come into the house they will either die shortly or move on
so no heroic measures are worthwhile. Since they do not eat anything
other than fungus or decaying plant material, carry no disease and
do not attack humans, they are at worst a minor and temporary nuisance.
It should be avoided to use fungicidal, pesticidal or insecticidal treatments in the house. Such treatments kill also the natural enemies, such as spiders. After the treatment, the house will be invaded by all kinds of critters due to the abscense of these predators.
A harmless alternative against domestic springtails could be citronella-oil.
See: Students discover high acute toxicity of Citronella oil to springtails in a school practical at the VU
(31 May, 2006).
According to this preliminary research springtails seem quite sensitive to citronella-oil.
Citronella-oil is harmless for humans but seems deadly to springtails.
BSc students Marcel Deken, Jeroen Castricum and Oscar Franken
of the Vrije Universiteit of Amsterdam, the Netherlands,
compared citronella-oil with three other citrus products in preference
carousels. They discovered that citronella-oil is acutely toxic to Collembola:
Orchesella cincta died within a few seconds after coming into contact
with a substrate to which one droplet per 4 g of sand was added.
The same dose of freshly pressed lemon juice was not avoided, even preferred
in most cases. However, bottled lemon juice was avoided by the springtails.
The best repellent effect was seen with a cleaning product called Citronell.
The experiments clearly show that for citronella-oil, it is not the repellent
effect of the lemon smell that causes an effect on springtails, but some
highly potent toxin. Citronella-oil is not a citrus product at all, but an
extract from Cymbopogon citratus, lemon-grass, a medicinal herb from
South-East Asia with lemon fragrance and often used in the Thai kitchen.
Extracts from this plant contain a great variety of secondary metabolites,
including several terpenoids, but the nature of the toxin remains unknown
to date.
The National Unidentified Skin Parasite Association is a U.S.A. organisation that offers message boards, discussion forums and a confidential questionnaire that can serve as a self support system for people with undetermined symptoms that resemble lice and scabies infections.
The Morgellons Foundation is a U.S.A. organisation that has a reporting registry that can be used to report undetermined symptoms that resemble lice and scabies infections.
Specimens of ectoparasites should be fixated in Gisin's fixative and preserved and shipped for identification in 70%-90% ethanol. |
95% ethanol | 750 ml | |
di-ethyl ether | 250 ml | |
glacial acetic acid | 30 ml | |
40% formaldehyde | 3 ml |